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Contents

Acknowledgements
Foreword
Using This Resource

I. Preparing to Teach
Planning a course
--Defining Instructional Objectives
--Teaching and Learning Styles: The   Academic Culture
--Choosing and Using Instructional   Materials
--Writing a Syllabus
--Syllabus Checklist
--Using the Syllabus in Class
--Summary of Course Planning
Addressing Students' Needs
--Importance of Knowing Your   Students
--Planning Considerations
--Getting to Know Your Students
--Students of Different Backgrounds
--Students with Disabilities
--Teaching Strategies: Non-Native   Speakers of English
--Creating a Learning Environment
--Dealing with Disruptive Behavior in   the Classroom
--Common Disruptive Student   Behaviors and Possible Responses
--Dealing with Apathetic Students
--Cultural Differences for International   Instructors
--Summary of Addressing Students’   Needs
Teaching Tips
--Organizing Class
--Ways to Be Accessible Outside the   Classroom
--Six Common Non-Facilitating   Teaching Behaviors
--Wireless in the Classroom: Advice   for Faculty
--Summary of Teaching Tips

II. Teaching Methods
The First Day of Class
--When the Class Meets You
--When You Meet the Class
--Diversity the Instructor Brings to the   Classroom
--Conversing with Students with   Disabilities
--Moving Forward
--Summary of the First Day of Class
Lecturing
--Strategies for Effective Learning
--Advantages and Disadvantages of   the Traditional Lecture Method
--Enhancing Learning in Large   Classes
--Chalkboard Technique
--Writing Assignments in the Lecture
--Engaging Women in Math and   Science Courses
--Formulating Effective Questions
--Summary of Lecturing
Discussion
--Brief Overview
--The “Nuts and Bolts” of Discussion
--Facilitating Discussion of Sensitive   Issues
--Encouraging Student Contributions
--Alternative Instructional Methods
--Potential Problems in Discussions
--Summary of Discussion
Expanding Teaching Strategies
--Practical Examples
--Show and Tell
--Case Studies
--Teaching with Case Studies
--Guided Design Projects
--Brainstorming
Group Work
--General Information about Using   Groups
--Group Work in an Introductory   Science Laboratory
Science Labs
--The Role of the Lab Instructor
--What Do the Students Need to   Know?
--The First Day
--Planning and Running a Laboratory
--Safety Procedures
--Summary of Science Labs
Teaching Outside the Classroom
--Tutoring
--Office Hours
--Teaching Students to Solve   Problems
--Advising and Extracurricular   Activities
--Summary of Teaching Outside the   Classroom
Overcoming Misconceptions
--Societal Attitudes and Science   Anxiety
--Misconceptions as Barriers to   Understanding Science
--Common Difficulties and   Misunderstandings

III. Teaching-as-Research
Assessing Student Performance
--Establishing Objectives for   Assessment
--Assessment Primer
--Formulating Effective Methods of   Assessment
--Helping Students Succeed on   Assignments and Exams
--The Why and How of Tests
--Grading Lab Reports, Problem Sets,   and Exam Questions
--Grading Checklist
--Grading Specific Activities
--Grading Writing
--Summary of Assessing Student   Performance
How to Evaluate Your Own Teaching
--Evaluating Your Own Teaching
--A Note on Teaching-as-Research

IV. Appendices
Inspirational Essays
--Mathematics: The Universal   Language of Science
--Transforming Quizzes into Teaching   and Learning Tools
--Teaching My Students to Fish
--Chemistry: The Other Foreign   Language
--Teaching to Different Modes of   Learning
--Notes from a Career in Teaching
Additional Resources
Websites
Graduate Assistant Handbook Outline
--Department- and Institution-Specific   Information
--18 Questions to Have Answered

Works Cited

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Problems of Terminology

1. Confusing the technical meanings and the ordinary meanings of words.
Some scientific terms have technical meanings that are very different from their common sense meanings. For example “spontaneously” in chemistry does not mean “very quickly” or “all by itself” – it means “without net input of energy.” Students may be more familiar with the common English definition. Therefore, they might think that spontaneous reactions occur rapidly and/or without an enzyme. This type of difference between technical and ordinary meanings often leads to a lot of confusion because the TA, text author or lecturer is using the term in the technical sense, while the student is using the non-technical, commonsense meaning. Even when the student tries to use the term correctly, s/he is often confused by the connotations that the word has in common usage.

Another example: The teacher asks “Does burning destroy matter?” and the student says “Yes.” The teacher groans and thinks the student is an idiot. But the student is not; s/he is using the term “destroy” in its ordinary English sense, and the teacher is using it in its technical physics sense. If the teacher’s house burns down, the house will certainly be destroyed (in the English sense), even though the atoms that were in the house have not been altered. 

2. Using words that have technical meanings and not realizing it.
Some ordinary English words are used as technical terms, as explained above, but experienced scientists (such as graduate students and lecturers) are so used to using these words that they often forget that these words have special meanings. So the scientists don’t define the terms, and then are surprised when the students don’t know what they mean. For example, what is a “strain” of bacteria? Do all bacteria of the same strain have the same genes and/or alleles? Are the genes in the same order? Are all bacteria of one strain of the same sex? A graduate student who works with bacteria will consider these questions so obvious that s/he will not realize that the answers are not common knowledge.

3. Getting confused when using similar but not identical terms.
Certain pairs of terms seem to be difficult to distinguish – for example, “gene” and “allele,” as well as “chromosome” and “chromatid.” There are many such sets of terms that are very similar in meaning and that are often used sloppily even in scientific writing (and speech). To make it worse, some of these terms are synonyms in common speech, such as “inhibition” and “repression.” A good way to clear up confusion is to compare and contrast; compare what the two terms have in common and contrast their differences.

Other types of common conceptual difficulties

1. Finding unlikely and/or complex solutions when ordinary, simple ones will do.
There is a saying in medical school: “When you hear hoof beats in Central Park, you don't think of zebras.” In other words, when you hear hoof beats in the park, it is probably a horse, even though it could be a zebra. A person who thinks it is probably a zebra does not understand the situation. When solving problems, always look for the “horse” – the simple, obvious solution – before you starting worrying about the “zebra” – the possible, but unlikely solution. Students often come up with very improbable (but possible) answers, and don't understand why their answers are unlikely or why unlikely answers are not as good. Usually their problem is a lack of general background – if you don’t know much about New York City, you might not realize that horses are relatively common there and zebras are rare.

2. Not seeing how the parts relate to each other or to the whole.
Students often understand what certain items are, or what they do, but do not understand how the items relate to each other, or how the details relate to the big picture. For example, students may understand the structure of DNA, that genes are made of DNA and that chromosomes carry genes, but they may have trouble figuring out how the DNA fits in the chromosome. (How many copies per chromosome? How many strands? What’s a strand?) As another example, students may understand how DNA is replicated, transcribed, and translated, but they still may not understand how a gene controls a trait. So you may need to explain “up” or “down” how the parts relate to the whole – up, how the item under discussion fits into something bigger, and down, how the item is made of smaller things. For example, if you are discussing genes, you should be prepared to go “up” to chromosomes, genomes, traits, etc., and “down” to DNA, codons, nucleotides, and bases.

How to Speak and Avoid Misunderstandings

1. Use a picture or diagram in addition to words.

2. Avoid pronouns and use nouns instead.
Don’t say “it” – say “mRNA” or “gene” or another specific noun. You should be careful not to use too many vague pronouns yourself, and you shouldn’t let the students fall into that habit either. For example, suppose a student says, “The gene is transcribed and then it goes to the cytoplasm and is translated, which uses tRNA and mRNA.” Now the student may or may not understand how genes are expressed, but you can't tell whether s/he knows or not, because “which” could mean transcription or translation. In this example, the student may know the correct answer and just be using poor English by accident, or the student may not know and be using unclear language on purpose to hide his or her confusion. Alternatively, the student may not even realize that s/he is unclear in his or her own mind. So, if you want to express yourself clearly, use as many nouns and as few unclear pronouns as possible, even if it sounds a little repetitious. Encourage students to talk in nouns too.

3. Before you start to explain a topic or problem, find out where the student is stuck.
This will save you from wasting time and energy explaining things that are clear and will allow you to zero in on the real problem.

4. Explain a short piece of a problem at a time.
Don’t go on until (a) you are sure that everyone understands what you explained and (b) you are sure that you need to explain the rest. For part (a) asking “Does everyone understand?” doesn’t usually get a satisfactory answer. You have to look at the students’ faces or ask a question about what you have just said to find out if they understand. For part (b) you may discover that you don’t have to explain the whole thing because the part you just explained was the only hard part and the student has now become “unstuck.” (See point 3 above.)

5. If you don’t know the answer, go look it up.
Look it up for next time, or look it up right on the spot if you have the right book and can figure it out right away. You aren’t expected to know everything, but you are expected to be able to figure student questions out eventually.

6. When a student asks a specific question, try to answer it without going over a lot of background material, unless it seems necessary.
If a student asks you to explain hydrogen bonds, don’t start with atomic structure. Assume s/he knows what electrons and covalent bonds are, and proceed from there. If there is any question about where to start explaining, ask the student. (See point 3 above.)